Lotus

 (e-Content developed by Prof (Dr) N A Jarandkar)

तोरू दत्त ही स्वातंत्र्यपूर्व भारतातील इंग्रजीतून लिहिणारी एक महत्त्वपूर्ण कवयित्री आहे. केवळ २१ वर्षाचे आयुष्य लाभलेल्या तोरू दत्तने आपल्या आयुष्यातील चार वर्षे युरोपमध्ये व्यतीत केली होती. इंग्रजीबरोबरच तिचा फ्रेंच, बंगाली आणि संस्कृत भाषांचा अभ्यास होता. युरोपमधील स्त्रियांना मिळणाऱ्या स्वातंत्र्याने भारावून गेलेल्या तोरूला आयुष्याच्या एका टप्प्यावर पाश्चात्य संस्कृतीइतकीच भारतीय संस्कृती समृद्ध असल्याची प्रचिती आली. पाश्चात्य आणि भारतीय संस्कृतीसंदर्भातील भावनांच्या आंदोलनांचे तिच्या कवितेमध्ये प्रतिबिंब पडलेले पहावयास मिळते.

‘दि लोटस’ ही कविता ‘सॉनेट’ या काव्यप्रकारात लिहिलेली आहे. ‘सॉनेट’ म्हणजे १४ ओळींची कविता. ही कविता दोन कडव्यांमध्ये विभागलेली असते. यातील पहिले कडवे हे आठ ओळींचे असते. याला ‘ऑकटेव्ह’ (octave) असे म्हटले जाते. तर दुसरे कडवे हे सहा ओळींचे असते. याला ‘सेसटेट’ (sestet) असे म्हटले जाते. इंग्रजीतील हा एक अत्यंत प्रसिद्ध काव्यप्रकार आहे.

‘दि लोटस’ कवितेमध्ये कवयित्रीने ग्रीक-रोमन पुराणकथांचा संदर्भ घेतलेला आहे. एकदा प्रेमाची देवता ‘लव्ह’ (Love) ही फुलांची देवता ‘फ्लोरा’ (Flora) हिच्याकडे येते आणि तिच्याकडे अशा एका फुलाची मागणी करते ज्याला निर्विवादपणे ‘फुलांची राणी’ म्हणता येईल. हा सन्मान मिळवण्यासाठी दोन फुलांमध्ये नेहमीच स्पर्धा राहिली होती : लिली आणि गुलाब. कवीमंडळीनी (bards of power) आपापल्यापरीने या दोन्ही फुलांची पाठराखण केली होती. काहींचे म्हणणे होते की ज्युनोसारखे प्रसन्न दर्शन असणाऱ्या लिलीच्या फुलासोबत गुलाबाची तुलना होऊ शकत नाही (Juno: स्वर्गाची देवता). तर अन्य कवींचे म्हणणे होते की गुलाबाइतकी लिली देखणी आहे का? त्यामुळे प्रेमाच्या देवतेने अशी मागणी केली की मला असे फुल दे जे गुलाबाइतके देखणे असेल आणि लिलीइतके प्रसन्न असेल (“Give me a flower delicious as the rose And stately as the lily in her pride”). यावर फ्लोरा देवतेने विचारले की मग या फुलाचा रंग कसा असावा? यावर प्रेमाच्या देवतेने प्रथम गुलाबासारखा लाल रंग मागितला, मग लिलीसारखा पांढरा रंग मागितला आणि शेवटी दोन्ही रंग एकत्र असणाऱ्या फुलाची मागणी केली. आणि यावर फ्लोरा देवतेने फुलांमधली ‘सर्वोत्तम राणी’ म्हणून (the queenliest flower) तिला कमळाचे फुल प्रदान केले.

       भारतीय परंपरेनुसार ‘कमळ’ हे शांतता आणि पावित्र्य यांचे प्रतिक आहे. कमळाला भारताचे राष्ट्रीय फुल जाहीर करण्यात आले आहे. कवितेमध्ये ‘लिली’ आणि ‘गुलाब’ ही पश्चिम आणि पूर्व संस्कृतींची प्रतीके आहेत. परंतु कवीला असे वाटते की या दोन्ही संस्कृतींचा संगम (‘कमळ’) शांतता आणि सलोखा निर्माण करण्यासाठी गरजेचा आहे.

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Introduction:

Toru Dutt is an important Indian English poet writing in the pre-independence period of India. She was well versed in Bengali, Sanskrit, English and French. Her poetry combines Indian themes with Western classical influences. She died at a young age. Her poem ‘The Lotus’ is considered as an expression of the national pride. The poem symbolizes the dignity and beauty of Indian culture.

The poem:

In the poem, it is seen that once the Roman goddess Love approaches Flora, the goddess of flowers and asks to give her a flower which deserves the honour of a queen. But she is in dilemma whether she should choose the white lily which stands for majestic quality or the red rose which symbolizes sweetness. Several poets have sung in favour of both the flowers. There is fraction among the renowned poets into two groups; one group adores lily and the other adores rose. Rose can never match the majestic look of lily as it looks like ‘Juno’s mien’. On the other hand, a lily cannot match the loveliness of a rose. Finally, Love asks Flora to give her a flower that is both charming and sweet like a rose and majestic like a lily. Flora, then, conceives lotus which is both red and white having qualities of both rose and lily.

Themes of the poem:

At one level, the poem celebrates the expression of national pride. A lotus is a national flower. It has a special significance in the Indian tradition. Then, the poem talks about harmony and balance. People are divided into rose-lovers and lily-lovers. But the flower of lotus blends both the qualities of rose and lily. Thus, a lotus becomes a symbol of harmony and balance.

In the poem, the poet makes use of the Roman mythology. Love and Flora are the Roman goddesses of love and flowers. There is a reference to Juno and Psyche, again the Roman goddesses. So, at one level, it appears that the dispute about beauty is going on in the western world. And the solution to this dispute is seen in the Indian context.

Form of the poem:

The poem is written in a sonnet form. Sonnet is a poem written in fourteen lines. It is divided into two stanzas. There are eight lines in the first stanza (octave), and six lines in the second stanza (sestet). The first stanza of the poem deals with the conflict between the beauty of rose versus lily. The second stanza deals with harmony and balance through the lotus flower.

Conclusion:

The Lotus” is a short but profound poem that beautifully expresses Toru Dutt’s poetic vision. It is a world where love and purity, East and West, passion and peace come together.
Through the myth of Flora and the Indian lotus, she creates a universal symbol of beauty and unity. The poem stands as a fine example of how an Indian poet could use Western literary forms and classical myths to express Indian themes and pride.

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Where the Mind is Without Fear

 'गीतांजली' या काव्यसंग्रहातील टागोरांची ही एक अत्यंत सुप्रसिद्ध कविता आहे. ईश्वराला केलेली प्रार्थना, असे या कवितेचे स्वरूप आहे. या कवितेत कवी ईश्वराकडे अशी प्रार्थना करत आहे, की माझ्या राष्ट्राचा उदय हा अशा एका स्वातंत्र्याच्या नंदनवनामध्ये होऊ दे, ज्याठिकाणी पुढील गोष्टी नांदत असतील :

• मन हे निर्भय असेल आणि मान ताठपणे उभी राहू शकेल; 
• ज्ञानाची कवाडे सर्वांना खुली असतील;
• कोत्या वृत्तीच्या भिंतीनी इथले जग विछिन्न झालेले नसेल;
•  शब्दांना सत्याची खोली असेल;
•  सर्वचजण अचूकता प्राप्त करण्यासाठी अहोरात्र कष्ट करत असतील;
• माणसे आपली बुद्धी शाबूत ठेवून वागतील जेणेकरून ते वाईट रुढींच्या बंजर वाळवंटात भरकटणार नाहीत;
•  मन हे विचार आणि कृती यांचा ध्यास घेत सतत पुढचा मार्ग काढत राहील. 

अशा प्रकारे टागोर हे अशा एका जगाचे स्वप्न पहात आहेत जिथे भीतीचे वातावरण नसेल, सर्वाना सन्मानाची वागणूक मिळेल, सर्वांना शिक्षणाची संधी मिळेल, जातीभेद-गरीब-श्रीमंत अशा भिंती असणार नाहीत, सर्वजण खरे बोलतील, सर्वांना अचूकतेचा ध्यास असेल, सर्वजण अहोरात्र प्रयत्न करतील, सर्वजण बुद्धीप्रामाण्यवादी असतील. 

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Introduction:    

    Rabindranath Tagore is one of India’s greatest poets, philosophers, and reformers. He wrote in Bengali and English. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for his English poetry collection Gitanjali.

    The poem “Where the Mind is Without Fear” is one of the most famous poems from Gitanjali. It was written before India’s independence and expresses Tagore’s dream of a free and ideal India. The poem is a prayer to God for the nation — a vision of a land where people are fearless, truthful, united, and guided by reason.

The Poem:

The poem begins with the poet’s dream of freedom — not just political independence, but freedom of the mind and spirit.

He imagines a country where:

i) People live without fear, with their heads held high in dignity.

ii) Knowledge is free, available to everyone.

iii) Society is not divided by narrow domestic walls such as caste, class, or religion.

iv) People speak the truth sincerely, not out of fear or habit.

v) Everyone works hard with tireless striving to reach perfection.

vi) the clear stream of human thought flows freely and is not lost in the desert of dead habits and superstitions.

vii) The mind is guided by God toward broader thinking and noble actions.

Finally, the poet prays to God to awaken his country into this “heaven of freedom,” where true liberty, truth, and human values prevail.

Theme of the poem:

The poem’s central theme is freedom — intellectual, moral, and spiritual.

Tagore dreams of a nation that is:

• Free from fear, ignorance, and divisions.

• Guided by truth, reason, and humanity.

• Spiritually awakened and morally strong.

It reflects Tagore’s humanistic and universal vision — a nation where all people can live with dignity and harmony.

Form and Structure of the poem:

The poem is written in free verse. It has no rhyme scheme or regular rhythm. The single long sentence (ending with “let my country awake”) gives the poem a prayer-like flow.

Language and Style:

The language is simple, direct, and powerful. The poem uses metaphors and imagery to convey deep ideas.

Conclusion:

“Where the Mind is Without Fear” is not just a patriotic poem — it is a vision of a perfect world. Through beautiful imagery and spiritual language, Tagore turns his dream of freedom into a universal prayer for human dignity, truth, and enlightenment. Even though written before 1947, the poem is still relevant today.It inspires us to build a world free from fear, prejudice, and hatred — where humanity, knowledge, and honesty guide our actions.

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Post-Independence Indian English Poetry

 (e-Content developed by Prof (Dr) N A Jarandikar)

Post-Independence Indian English Poetry

1. Introduction:

After India gained independence in 1947, Indian poets writing in English began to express new experiences, anxieties, and identities. The colonial era was over — poets no longer wrote to please the British audience. They began to speak in their own voices, reflecting the real India, its contradictions, hopes, and struggles. This period is usually called modern Indian English poetry or post-Independence poetry. Post-independence poets turned away from the romantic and idealistic tone of earlier poets. This poetry became more personal and realistic. 

2. The First Generation (1950s–1970s):

This period saw the rise of modernist poetry. It was new in theme, tone, and style. Major poets of this phase are:

Nissim Ezekiel: He is called the father of modern Indian English poetry. His poems are simple, ironic, and rooted in everyday life. “Night of the Scorpion,” “The Professor” are some of his important poems.

A. K. Ramanujan, Dom Moraes, Kamala Das are some other important poets of this phase.

3. The Second Generation (1970s–1990s):

Poets of this phase expanded themes and experimented with new forms. They were influenced by social change, feminism, and urbanization.

Key poets:

Jayanta Mahapatra – wrote about Orissa, myths, and human suffering .

Arun Kolatkar – used irony and humour to portray city life. Jejuri is his notable poetry collection.

Dilip Chitre, Keki N. Daruwalla, R. Parthasarathy are some other important poets of this phase. 

4. The Contemporary Phase (1990s–present):

In recent decades, poetry reflects globalisation, migration, technology, and political unrest. Some noted poets of this phase are Vikram Seth, Imtiaz Dharker, Jeet Thayil, etc. 

5. Characteristics of Post-Independence Poetry

• Use of Indian English – reflects natural Indian speech patterns.

• Search for identity – cultural, linguistic, gender-based.

• Experimentation – free verse, colloquial language, irony.

• Political and feminist awareness – questioning power, patriarchy, and religion.

7. Conclusion:

Post-Independence Indian English poetry represents a confident, authentic Indian voice in world literature. It no longer imitates English poets but explores the realities of modern India — its cities, families, women, and contradictions.

Pre-Independence Poetry in Indian English

History of Pre-Independence Poetry in Indian English

1. Introduction:

Indian English poetry refers to poetry written by Indian poets in the English language. Its history begins in the early 19th century, when English education and literature were introduced in India during British rule. This period from 1820s to 1947 is called the pre-Independence phase of Indian English poetry.

2. Early Phase (1820–1850)

• The first Indian poets writing in English were influenced by British Romantic and Victorian poets like Wordsworth, Byron, and Tennyson.

• They tried to use English forms and styles but often expressed Indian themes, myths, and landscapes.

• Henry Louis Vivian Derozio  and  Kaliprasad Ghose are the important poets of this phase.

3. The Middle Phase (1850–1900)

• Poets of this phase showed more confidence and individuality.

• They continued to imitate English models but also began to explore Indian culture, religion, and spirituality.

• Toru Dutt, Shri Aurbindo and Manmohan Ghose are the important poets of this phase. These poets blended Indian myths with European forms. 

4. The Late Phase (1900–1947)

• In this phase, poetry became  nationalistic and social. It reflected India’s struggle for independence.

• English was now used as a tool for self-expression and protest.

Important poets:

• Sarojini Naidu – known as “The Nightingale of India.” Her poetry celebrates Indian traditions, beauty, and freedom.

• Rabindranath Tagore – though he mainly wrote in Bengali, his own English translations (e.g., Gitanjali) made him world-famous. His poems reflect spirituality, humanity, and love for nature.

5. Characteristics of Pre-Independence Poetry

• Influence of English Romanticism 

• Blend of Indian and Western traditions 

• Spiritual and mystical tone 

• Nationalism 

6. Conclusion:

Pre-Independence Indian English poetry laid the foundation for modern Indian poetry in English. Poets like Derozio, Toru Dutt, Sarojini Naidu, and Tagore helped shape a literary identity that was both Indian and global.

Poems

1.  'Where the Mind is without Fear'

                                                                 - Rabindranath Tagore (1861 - 1941) 

Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high
Where knowledge is free
Where the world has not been broken up into fragments
By narrow domestic walls
Where words come out from the depth of truth
Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection
Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way
Into the dreary desert sand of dead habit
Where the mind is led forward by thee
Into ever-widening thought and action
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.

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2. 'The Lotus'

                                                                    - Toru Dutta (1856 - 1877)

Love came to Flora asking for a flower
That would of flowers be undisputed queen,
The lily and the rose, long, long had been
Rivals for that high honour. Bards of power
Had sung their claims. "The rose can never tower
Like the pale lily with her Juno mien"--
"But is the lily lovelier?" Thus between
Flower-factions rang the strife in Psyche's bower.

"Give me a flower delicious as the rose
And stately as the lily in her pride"--
"But of what colour?"--"Rose-red," Love first chose,
Then prayed,--"No, lily-white,--or, both provide;"
And Flora gave the lotus, "rose-red" dyed,
And "lily-white,"--the queenliest flower that blows.

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3. 'Bangle Sellers'

                                                                                - Sarojini Naidu (1879 - 1949)

Bangle sellers are we who bear
Our shining loads to the temple fair...
Who will buy these delicate, bright
Rainbow-tinted circles of light?
Lustrous tokens of radiant lives,
For happy daughters and happy wives.

Some are meet for a maiden's wrist,
Silver and blue as the mountain mist,
Some are flushed like the buds that dream
On the tranquil brow of a woodland stream,
Some are aglow wth the bloom that cleaves
To the limpid glory of new born leaves

Some are like fields of sunlit corn,
Meet for a bride on her bridal morn,
Some, like the flame of her marriage fire,
Or, rich with the hue of her heart's desire,
Tinkling, luminous, tender, and clear,
Like her bridal laughter and bridal tear.

Some are purple and gold flecked grey
For she who has journeyed through life midway,
Whose hands have cherished, whose love has blest,
And cradled fair sons on her faithful breast,
And serves her household in fruitful pride,
And worships the gods at her husband's side.

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4. 'Night of Scorpion'

                                                                              - Nissim Ezekiel (1924 - 2004)

I remember the night my mother
was stung by a scorpion. Ten hours
of steady rain had driven him
to crawl beneath a sack of rice.

Parting with his poison - flash
of diabolic tail in the dark room -
he risked the rain again.

The peasants came like swarms of flies
and buzzed the name of God a hundred times
to paralyse the Evil One.

With candles and with lanterns
throwing giant scorpion shadows
on the mud-baked walls
they searched for him: he was not found.
They clicked their tongues.
With every movement that the scorpion made his poison moved in Mother's blood, they said.

May he sit still, they said
May the sins of your previous birth
be burned away tonight, they said.
May your suffering decrease
the misfortunes of your next birth, they said.
May the sum of all evil
balanced in this unreal world

against the sum of good
become diminished by your pain.
May the poison purify your flesh

of desire, and your spirit of ambition,
they said, and they sat around
on the floor with my mother in the centre,
the peace of understanding on each face.
More candles, more lanterns, more neighbours,
more insects, and the endless rain.
My mother twisted through and through,
groaning on a mat.
My father, sceptic, rationalist,
trying every curse and blessing,
powder, mixture, herb and hybrid.
He even poured a little paraffin
upon the bitten toe and put a match to it.
I watched the flame feeding on my mother.
I watched the holy man perform his rites to tame the poison with an incantation.
After twenty hours
it lost its sting.

My mother only said
Thank God the scorpion picked on me
And spared my children.

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5. 'After Eight Years of Marriage'

                                                                                        - Mamata Kalia (1940)

After eight years of marriage

The first time I visited my parents,

They asked, “Are you happy, tell us”.

It was an absurd question

And I should have laughed at it

Instead, I cried,

And in between sobs, nodded yes.

I wanted to tell them

That I was happy on Tuesday

I was unhappy on Wednesday.

I was happy one day at 8 o’clock

I was most unhappy by 8.15.

I wanted to tell them how one day

We all ate a watermelon and laughed.

I wanted to tell them how I wept in bed all night once

And struggled hard from hurting myself.

That it wasn’t easy to be happy in a family of twelve,

But they were looking at my two sons,

Hopping around like young goats.

Their wrinkled hands, beaten faces and grey eyelashes

Were all too much too real.

SO I swallowed everything,

And smiled a smile of great content.

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6. The Image of Vithoba – I

In an exquisite trance 

He stands on the Brick 

Arms akimbo Hands on hips

 

Sweet basil beads 

Garland His neck 

A yellow silk garment 

Girdled around His loins

I love His trance 

His forever stance 

Crocodile-shaped rings. 

Gleam at His ears 

The kaustubba stone 

Glows at His throat 

Says Tuka, for me 

This is absolute bliss 

The loving eyes are mine 

The loved face His

                                                by Dilip Chitre (1938 - 2009)

 

v v v

 

Humour

 

Humour

Humour is one of the most delightful and effective elements in literature. It refers to the quality of a work that makes the reader or audience smile, laugh, or feel amused. But humour is not just about making people laugh; it often has a deeper purpose. It can be used to point out the foolishness, weaknesses, or contradictions in human nature and society. In literature, humour lightens serious situations, provides relief, and often helps writers present truth in an attractive way.

The word humour originally came from the Latin word humor, meaning “fluid” or “moisture.” In medieval medicine, it was believed that human behaviour depended on the balance of four bodily fluids, called “humours”. A balanced mixture produced a good-tempered person, while an imbalance led to anger, sadness, or foolishness.

Purpose and Function of Humour

Humour serves many purposes in literature. Its most obvious function is entertainment. However, humour often has a deeper social or moral purpose. Writers use humour to criticise society, to expose the hypocrisy of individuals, or to comment on moral and political issues. By making people laugh, authors can make them think without causing direct offence. This is why humour has always been a powerful literary tool.

For example, in satire, humour is used to ridicule or criticise human behaviour and institutions. Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels and George Orwell’s Animal Farm use humorous exaggeration and irony to attack social and political corruption. Similarly, Charles Dickens in David Copperfield uses gentle humour to criticise the evils of industrial society.

Forms and Techniques of Humour

There are several forms and techniques of humour found in literature:

1. Verbal Humour – It comes from clever use of language, such as puns, wordplay, and witty remarks. Shakespeare’s plays are full of this kind of humour.
2. Situational Humour – This type arises from funny or unexpected events and coincidences. In ‘Comedy of Errors’, for instance, characters get into humorous situations because of mistaken identities.
3. Character-based Humour – Some characters themselves are funny because of their habits, speech, or behaviour. Shakespeare’s ‘Falstaff’ or ‘Nick Bottom’ are famous examples of comic characters.
4. Satirical Humour – This kind of humour has a moral aim. It mocks human vices, foolishness, or social injustice through exaggeration and irony. Writers like Swift, and Pope used this form.

Humour Across Literary Periods

During the Elizabethan age, Shakespeare combined humour and seriousness in his plays, creating a balance between laughter and tragedy. The Restoration period (17th century) gave rise to witty comedies of manners by writers like William Congreve and Richard Sheridan, which mocked the fashionable society of London.

In the Victorian era, humour became a tool for social criticism. Charles Dickens, Mark Twain, and Oscar Wilde used humour to expose the hypocrisy and pretensions of society. In the 20th century, writers such as P.G. Wodehouse created pure comedy through amusing characters and absurd situations, while others like George Bernard Shaw used humour to make serious social points.

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Features of Drama

 

Discuss the Features of Drama as a Form of Literature

Drama is one of the oldest and most popular forms of literature. The word drama comes from the Greek word “dran,” meaning to do or to act. Drama is meant to be performed rather than just read. It presents human life and emotions through the actions and dialogues of characters on a stage before an audience.

The main features of drama as a form of literature are as follows:

1. Representation of Life through Action

Drama shows life in action. It does not describe events like a novel. It presents them through what the characters say and do. It is life seen through performance.

2. Dialogue

Dialogue is the most important element of drama. The story develops through the words spoken by the characters. Like novel form, there is no narrator to explain events. The audience understands everything through conversation and interaction among characters.

3. Characters

Drama depends on characters. Each character represents a particular quality, emotion, or social type. Their actions and speech make the play realistic and meaningful.

4. Conflict

Conflict is the heart of every drama. It may be an inner conflict within a character (mental struggle) or an external one between characters or between an individual and society. This conflict creates tension and interest, leading the play towards a climax and resolution.

5. Plot

The plot is the sequence of events that make up the story of the play. It generally has three parts:

• Beginning (Exposition): introduces the situation and characters.
• Middle (Climax): shows rising tension or conflict.
• End (Resolution): brings the story to a close.

A well-built plot keeps the audience engaged from start to finish.

6. Setting

The setting gives the time and place of the action. It may be a room, a palace, a battlefield, or any other space where events occur. In modern plays, setting also helps show social or emotional background.

7. Division into Acts and Scenes

Most dramas are divided into acts and scenes.

• An act is a major division, often showing a large part of the story.
• A scene is a smaller unit, often changing when the setting or time changes.
  This structure helps to organize the performance smoothly.

8. Stage Directions

The playwright gives instructions about movement, voice, or emotion through stage directions (usually written in brackets). These guide actors and directors in presenting the play effectively.

9. Theme and Message

Every drama has a central idea or theme. It may be love, ambition, power, jealousy, or social justice. The playwright uses the story to express a message or moral about human life or society.

10. Audience and Performance

Unlike novels or poems, drama always keeps the audience in mind. It comes alive only when performed on stage. The emotions, expressions, music, and movement together create an impact that written words alone cannot.

Conclusion

In short, drama is a living form of literature. It combines story, speech, and action to mirror human life. Its special features — dialogue, conflict, characters, and performance — make it different from other forms like the novel or poem. Drama not only entertains but also makes us think and feel deeply about the world we live in.