Post-Independence Indian English Poetry

 (e-Content developed by Prof (Dr) N A Jarandikar)

Post-Independence Indian English Poetry

1. Introduction:

After India gained independence in 1947, Indian poets writing in English began to express new experiences, anxieties, and identities. The colonial era was over — poets no longer wrote to please the British audience. They began to speak in their own voices, reflecting the real India, its contradictions, hopes, and struggles. This period is usually called modern Indian English poetry or post-Independence poetry. Post-independence poets turned away from the romantic and idealistic tone of earlier poets. This poetry became more personal and realistic. 

2. The First Generation (1950s–1970s):

This period saw the rise of modernist poetry. It was new in theme, tone, and style. Major poets of this phase are:

Nissim Ezekiel: He is called the father of modern Indian English poetry. His poems are simple, ironic, and rooted in everyday life. “Night of the Scorpion,” “The Professor” are some of his important poems.

A. K. Ramanujan, Dom Moraes, Kamala Das are some other important poets of this phase.

3. The Second Generation (1970s–1990s):

Poets of this phase expanded themes and experimented with new forms. They were influenced by social change, feminism, and urbanization.

Key poets:

Jayanta Mahapatra – wrote about Orissa, myths, and human suffering .

Arun Kolatkar – used irony and humour to portray city life. Jejuri is his notable poetry collection.

Dilip Chitre, Keki N. Daruwalla, R. Parthasarathy are some other important poets of this phase. 

4. The Contemporary Phase (1990s–present):

In recent decades, poetry reflects globalisation, migration, technology, and political unrest. Some noted poets of this phase are Vikram Seth, Imtiaz Dharker, Jeet Thayil, etc. 

5. Characteristics of Post-Independence Poetry

• Use of Indian English – reflects natural Indian speech patterns.

• Search for identity – cultural, linguistic, gender-based.

• Experimentation – free verse, colloquial language, irony.

• Political and feminist awareness – questioning power, patriarchy, and religion.

7. Conclusion:

Post-Independence Indian English poetry represents a confident, authentic Indian voice in world literature. It no longer imitates English poets but explores the realities of modern India — its cities, families, women, and contradictions.

Pre-Independence Poetry in Indian English

History of Pre-Independence Poetry in Indian English

1. Introduction:

Indian English poetry refers to poetry written by Indian poets in the English language. Its history begins in the early 19th century, when English education and literature were introduced in India during British rule. This period from 1820s to 1947 is called the pre-Independence phase of Indian English poetry.

2. Early Phase (1820–1850)

• The first Indian poets writing in English were influenced by British Romantic and Victorian poets like Wordsworth, Byron, and Tennyson.

• They tried to use English forms and styles but often expressed Indian themes, myths, and landscapes.

• Henry Louis Vivian Derozio  and  Kaliprasad Ghose are the important poets of this phase.

3. The Middle Phase (1850–1900)

• Poets of this phase showed more confidence and individuality.

• They continued to imitate English models but also began to explore Indian culture, religion, and spirituality.

• Toru Dutt, Shri Aurbindo and Manmohan Ghose are the important poets of this phase. These poets blended Indian myths with European forms. 

4. The Late Phase (1900–1947)

• In this phase, poetry became  nationalistic and social. It reflected India’s struggle for independence.

• English was now used as a tool for self-expression and protest.

Important poets:

• Sarojini Naidu – known as “The Nightingale of India.” Her poetry celebrates Indian traditions, beauty, and freedom.

• Rabindranath Tagore – though he mainly wrote in Bengali, his own English translations (e.g., Gitanjali) made him world-famous. His poems reflect spirituality, humanity, and love for nature.

5. Characteristics of Pre-Independence Poetry

• Influence of English Romanticism 

• Blend of Indian and Western traditions 

• Spiritual and mystical tone 

• Nationalism 

6. Conclusion:

Pre-Independence Indian English poetry laid the foundation for modern Indian poetry in English. Poets like Derozio, Toru Dutt, Sarojini Naidu, and Tagore helped shape a literary identity that was both Indian and global.

Poems

1.  'Where the Mind is without Fear'

                                                                 - Rabindranath Tagore (1861 - 1941) 

Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high
Where knowledge is free
Where the world has not been broken up into fragments
By narrow domestic walls
Where words come out from the depth of truth
Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection
Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way
Into the dreary desert sand of dead habit
Where the mind is led forward by thee
Into ever-widening thought and action
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.

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2. 'The Lotus'

                                                                    - Toru Dutta (1856 - 1877)

Love came to Flora asking for a flower
That would of flowers be undisputed queen,
The lily and the rose, long, long had been
Rivals for that high honour. Bards of power
Had sung their claims. "The rose can never tower
Like the pale lily with her Juno mien"--
"But is the lily lovelier?" Thus between
Flower-factions rang the strife in Psyche's bower.

"Give me a flower delicious as the rose
And stately as the lily in her pride"--
"But of what colour?"--"Rose-red," Love first chose,
Then prayed,--"No, lily-white,--or, both provide;"
And Flora gave the lotus, "rose-red" dyed,
And "lily-white,"--the queenliest flower that blows.

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3. 'Bangle Sellers'

                                                                                - Sarojini Naidu (1879 - 1949)

Bangle sellers are we who bear
Our shining loads to the temple fair...
Who will buy these delicate, bright
Rainbow-tinted circles of light?
Lustrous tokens of radiant lives,
For happy daughters and happy wives.

Some are meet for a maiden's wrist,
Silver and blue as the mountain mist,
Some are flushed like the buds that dream
On the tranquil brow of a woodland stream,
Some are aglow wth the bloom that cleaves
To the limpid glory of new born leaves

Some are like fields of sunlit corn,
Meet for a bride on her bridal morn,
Some, like the flame of her marriage fire,
Or, rich with the hue of her heart's desire,
Tinkling, luminous, tender, and clear,
Like her bridal laughter and bridal tear.

Some are purple and gold flecked grey
For she who has journeyed through life midway,
Whose hands have cherished, whose love has blest,
And cradled fair sons on her faithful breast,
And serves her household in fruitful pride,
And worships the gods at her husband's side.

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4. 'Night of Scorpion'

                                                                              - Nissim Ezekiel (1924 - 2004)

I remember the night my mother
was stung by a scorpion. Ten hours
of steady rain had driven him
to crawl beneath a sack of rice.

Parting with his poison - flash
of diabolic tail in the dark room -
he risked the rain again.

The peasants came like swarms of flies
and buzzed the name of God a hundred times
to paralyse the Evil One.

With candles and with lanterns
throwing giant scorpion shadows
on the mud-baked walls
they searched for him: he was not found.
They clicked their tongues.
With every movement that the scorpion made his poison moved in Mother's blood, they said.

May he sit still, they said
May the sins of your previous birth
be burned away tonight, they said.
May your suffering decrease
the misfortunes of your next birth, they said.
May the sum of all evil
balanced in this unreal world

against the sum of good
become diminished by your pain.
May the poison purify your flesh

of desire, and your spirit of ambition,
they said, and they sat around
on the floor with my mother in the centre,
the peace of understanding on each face.
More candles, more lanterns, more neighbours,
more insects, and the endless rain.
My mother twisted through and through,
groaning on a mat.
My father, sceptic, rationalist,
trying every curse and blessing,
powder, mixture, herb and hybrid.
He even poured a little paraffin
upon the bitten toe and put a match to it.
I watched the flame feeding on my mother.
I watched the holy man perform his rites to tame the poison with an incantation.
After twenty hours
it lost its sting.

My mother only said
Thank God the scorpion picked on me
And spared my children.

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5. 'After Eight Years of Marriage'

                                                                                        - Mamata Kalia (1940)

After eight years of marriage

The first time I visited my parents,

They asked, “Are you happy, tell us”.

It was an absurd question

And I should have laughed at it

Instead, I cried,

And in between sobs, nodded yes.

I wanted to tell them

That I was happy on Tuesday

I was unhappy on Wednesday.

I was happy one day at 8 o’clock

I was most unhappy by 8.15.

I wanted to tell them how one day

We all ate a watermelon and laughed.

I wanted to tell them how I wept in bed all night once

And struggled hard from hurting myself.

That it wasn’t easy to be happy in a family of twelve,

But they were looking at my two sons,

Hopping around like young goats.

Their wrinkled hands, beaten faces and grey eyelashes

Were all too much too real.

SO I swallowed everything,

And smiled a smile of great content.

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6. The Image of Vithoba – I

In an exquisite trance 

He stands on the Brick 

Arms akimbo Hands on hips

 

Sweet basil beads 

Garland His neck 

A yellow silk garment 

Girdled around His loins

I love His trance 

His forever stance 

Crocodile-shaped rings. 

Gleam at His ears 

The kaustubba stone 

Glows at His throat 

Says Tuka, for me 

This is absolute bliss 

The loving eyes are mine 

The loved face His

                                                by Dilip Chitre (1938 - 2009)

 

v v v

 

Humour

 

Humour

Humour is one of the most delightful and effective elements in literature. It refers to the quality of a work that makes the reader or audience smile, laugh, or feel amused. But humour is not just about making people laugh; it often has a deeper purpose. It can be used to point out the foolishness, weaknesses, or contradictions in human nature and society. In literature, humour lightens serious situations, provides relief, and often helps writers present truth in an attractive way.

The word humour originally came from the Latin word humor, meaning “fluid” or “moisture.” In medieval medicine, it was believed that human behaviour depended on the balance of four bodily fluids, called “humours”. A balanced mixture produced a good-tempered person, while an imbalance led to anger, sadness, or foolishness.

Purpose and Function of Humour

Humour serves many purposes in literature. Its most obvious function is entertainment. However, humour often has a deeper social or moral purpose. Writers use humour to criticise society, to expose the hypocrisy of individuals, or to comment on moral and political issues. By making people laugh, authors can make them think without causing direct offence. This is why humour has always been a powerful literary tool.

For example, in satire, humour is used to ridicule or criticise human behaviour and institutions. Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels and George Orwell’s Animal Farm use humorous exaggeration and irony to attack social and political corruption. Similarly, Charles Dickens in David Copperfield uses gentle humour to criticise the evils of industrial society.

Forms and Techniques of Humour

There are several forms and techniques of humour found in literature:

1. Verbal Humour – It comes from clever use of language, such as puns, wordplay, and witty remarks. Shakespeare’s plays are full of this kind of humour.
2. Situational Humour – This type arises from funny or unexpected events and coincidences. In ‘Comedy of Errors’, for instance, characters get into humorous situations because of mistaken identities.
3. Character-based Humour – Some characters themselves are funny because of their habits, speech, or behaviour. Shakespeare’s ‘Falstaff’ or ‘Nick Bottom’ are famous examples of comic characters.
4. Satirical Humour – This kind of humour has a moral aim. It mocks human vices, foolishness, or social injustice through exaggeration and irony. Writers like Swift, and Pope used this form.

Humour Across Literary Periods

During the Elizabethan age, Shakespeare combined humour and seriousness in his plays, creating a balance between laughter and tragedy. The Restoration period (17th century) gave rise to witty comedies of manners by writers like William Congreve and Richard Sheridan, which mocked the fashionable society of London.

In the Victorian era, humour became a tool for social criticism. Charles Dickens, Mark Twain, and Oscar Wilde used humour to expose the hypocrisy and pretensions of society. In the 20th century, writers such as P.G. Wodehouse created pure comedy through amusing characters and absurd situations, while others like George Bernard Shaw used humour to make serious social points.

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Features of Drama

 

Discuss the Features of Drama as a Form of Literature

Drama is one of the oldest and most popular forms of literature. The word drama comes from the Greek word “dran,” meaning to do or to act. Drama is meant to be performed rather than just read. It presents human life and emotions through the actions and dialogues of characters on a stage before an audience.

The main features of drama as a form of literature are as follows:

1. Representation of Life through Action

Drama shows life in action. It does not describe events like a novel. It presents them through what the characters say and do. It is life seen through performance.

2. Dialogue

Dialogue is the most important element of drama. The story develops through the words spoken by the characters. Like novel form, there is no narrator to explain events. The audience understands everything through conversation and interaction among characters.

3. Characters

Drama depends on characters. Each character represents a particular quality, emotion, or social type. Their actions and speech make the play realistic and meaningful.

4. Conflict

Conflict is the heart of every drama. It may be an inner conflict within a character (mental struggle) or an external one between characters or between an individual and society. This conflict creates tension and interest, leading the play towards a climax and resolution.

5. Plot

The plot is the sequence of events that make up the story of the play. It generally has three parts:

• Beginning (Exposition): introduces the situation and characters.
• Middle (Climax): shows rising tension or conflict.
• End (Resolution): brings the story to a close.

A well-built plot keeps the audience engaged from start to finish.

6. Setting

The setting gives the time and place of the action. It may be a room, a palace, a battlefield, or any other space where events occur. In modern plays, setting also helps show social or emotional background.

7. Division into Acts and Scenes

Most dramas are divided into acts and scenes.

• An act is a major division, often showing a large part of the story.
• A scene is a smaller unit, often changing when the setting or time changes.
  This structure helps to organize the performance smoothly.

8. Stage Directions

The playwright gives instructions about movement, voice, or emotion through stage directions (usually written in brackets). These guide actors and directors in presenting the play effectively.

9. Theme and Message

Every drama has a central idea or theme. It may be love, ambition, power, jealousy, or social justice. The playwright uses the story to express a message or moral about human life or society.

10. Audience and Performance

Unlike novels or poems, drama always keeps the audience in mind. It comes alive only when performed on stage. The emotions, expressions, music, and movement together create an impact that written words alone cannot.

Conclusion

In short, drama is a living form of literature. It combines story, speech, and action to mirror human life. Its special features — dialogue, conflict, characters, and performance — make it different from other forms like the novel or poem. Drama not only entertains but also makes us think and feel deeply about the world we live in.

 

Bharata's Rasa Theory

 (e-Content developed by Prof (Dr) N A Jarandikar)

Introduction

The Rasa Theory is the foundation of Indian literary and aesthetic criticism. It was first explained by Bharata in his famous Sanskrit text, the Nāṭyaśāstra (between 200 BCE and 200 CE). This theory explains how drama, poetry, dance, and other forms of art create an emotional experience for the audience.

Meaning of Rasa

The word ‘rasa’ literally means juice, flavour, or essence. In art, rasa means the emotional essence or flavour experienced by the audience. Just as food is enjoyed for its taste, literature and drama are enjoyed for their rasa. The actor/poet presents emotions (bhavas), and when the audience emotionally responds to them, rasa is produced.

Bhava and Rasa

Bharata explains that bhava (emotion shown by the actor) is the cause, and rasa (emotion experienced by the audience) is the effect.

For example: On stage when a character weeps, it is termed as ‘bhava’. And after watching this when the audience feels sadness, it is termed as the karuna rasa.

The Rasas

According to Bharata, there are eight rasas:

1. Shringar rasa: produced by love.
   
   

2. Hasya rasa: produced by laughter.
   
   

3. Raudra rasa:  produced by anger.
   
   

4. Karuṇa rasa:  produced by ‘shok’ or grief.
   
   

5. Vira rasa: produced by energy.
   
   

6. Bhayanaka rasa: produced by bhaya or fear.
   
   

7. Bibhatsa rasa: produced by disgust.
   
   

8. Adbhuta rasa: produced by surprise and astonishment.
   
   

Later, Kashmiri philosopher Abhinavagupta added the ninth rasa:

9. Shanta rasa: produced by equilibrium, and detachment.

Importance of Rasa Theory

1. The rasa theory explains the goal of art which is not just storytelling, but creating emotional experience.
   
   

2. The rasa theory has universal emotional appeal. The emotions shown on stage are transformed into universal feelings. For example, the personal grief becomes karuṇa rasa for all.
   
   

3. Influence on Indian arts – Rasa Theory shaped drama, poetry, dance, music, sculpture, and even modern cinema.
   
   

4. Rasa theory is an Indian concept of aesthetic experience.The Western theories focus on ‘imitation' whereas Indian thought focuses on emotional experience.

Conclusion

The Rasa Theory highlights that the true success of art lies in awakening rasa in the audience. By evoking joy, sorrow, wonder, fear, or peace, literature and performance connect individuals to universal human emotions. This makes Bharata’s Rasa Theory one of the most enduring and influential contributions to world aesthetics.

Internal Evaluation_BCom I_English

 

B. Com. I_AEC

 

Test 01: Home Assignments (O5 MARKS)

Q.1) Explain the process of Pre-fixation and exemplify the usage

Test 02: Class Assignments (O5 MARKS)

1) Write short notes ( Any One)

A) Simple  Sentences

C) Complex Sentences

Test 03: Quiz (O5 MARKS)

Q.1 Choose the correct answers in the following questions.

1) She........ to the market every morning.

A) go     B) goes        C) gone      D) going

2) They........ football when it started to rain.

A) play           B) played      C) were playing      D) playing

3) He........a book now

A) read           B) is reading       C) am reading     D) reading

4) We........ Cricket tomorrow

A) play                B) played              C) will play               D) playing

5) I........ my homework

A) have               B) have finished                  C) has finished           D) was finished

Test 04: MIDTERM TEST (O5 MARKS)

1)  Q. 1 Write the answer to the following question in 100 – 200 words.

 A) Explain the Prefixation and Suffixation with suitable examples.

 

B. Com. Part I_SEC

Test 01: Home Assignment (O5 MARKS)

Q.1) Explain the different barriers to communication and suggest possible solutions with suitable examples.

Test 02: Class Assignment (O5 MARKS)

1) Write a formal invitation Letter to your college Principal to attend the Annual Cultural Program as the Chief Guest.

Test 03: Quiz (O5 MARKS)

Choose the correct answers in the following questions.

Q1. Which of the following is ……..NOT a level of reading?

a) Literal Reading                         b) Critical Reading

c) Creative Reading                      d) Mechanical Reading

Q2. Skimming is…….. mainly used for:

a) Reading each word carefully                   b) Finding the detailed meaning of a passage

c) Getting the general idea of a text            d) Translating text into another language

Q3. Which of the following is…… NOT a type of writing style?

a) Narrative                                               b) Descriptive

c) Persuasive                                            d) Listening

Q4. A blog is generally considered as……..

a) Creative writing                                     b) Informal writing

c) Both a and b                                          d) None of these

Q5. The most suitable method for finding specific information quickly in a passage is………

a) Summarizing                                         b) Scanning

c) Skimming                                             d) Critical Reading

Test 04: MIDTERM (O5 MARKS)

 Q. 1 Write the answer to the following question in 100 – 200 words.

1) Discuss the professional Business Communication, highlighting its purpose, benefits and essential elements.

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